Adult and Non-formal Education

The estimated literacy levels in Cambodia vary, depending on the survey methodology and on the definition of literacy. Based on 1998 census data and previous demographic surveys, overall adult literacy levels have increased from 58% in 1990 (40% for females) to 68% in 1998 (58% for females).

A recent UNESCO-UNDP literacy survey (2000) estimates that 36% of the population (or about 2.4 million adults) is illiterate and 27% are only semi-illiterate (1.7 million adults). This means that only 36% of the population is literate in terms of being able to use their literacy skills for everyday life and income generation. In other words, around 4 million adults are currently in need of literacy training provision.

Current access and coverage of adult literacy classes is limited. At present, around 30,500 adults (76% women) are enrolled in Government-sponsored classes. NGO and donor supported literacy programmes reach around 20,000 students (74% women). In other words, only 2% of the totally illiterate adult population is currently being reached. On the positive side, three-quarters of participants are women, consistent with broad priorities.

The selection criteria for the programmes vary, including on-demand, female head of households, out-of-school youth and links with micro-credit and other rural income generating activities. In broad terms, the geographical targeting of the programme is broadly in line with areas in the country with lower literacy rates. In some instances, primary schools and pre-schools are used, alongside community centers, especially in the rural areas, where many schools operate only a single shift. There appears to be significant scope for the use of schools in early mornings, afternoons and evenings for any expansion of provision. In order to assure easy access and remove potential access barriers, the timetabling of the programmes is critical, taking account of participants' domestic and work patterns.

For the government supported programmes, it is reported that around 55% of learners acquire functional literacy. For the NGO programmes the figure is 45%, although the success criteria may vary. The success rate amongst women is only 48% compared to 61% for men. The reasons for this are unclear, but may include a higher commitment amongst males and difficulties for regular attendance by women because of domestic duties. A key consideration for assuring enrolment growth, regular attendance and programme effectiveness will be to build appropriate incentives (e.g. literacy as a credential for accessing micro credit schemes) into programme design.

The programmes normally last six months. Literacy materials are reportedly well designed, with significant donor/NGO support over the past ten years. The literacy trainers are mainly retired primary school teachers or other better-educated members of local communities. Programmes usually include teacher orientation for teaching literacy and on-the-job follow up by specially trained support staff.

Little information is available on the effectiveness and impact of literacy programmes. Many of them have objectives that include income generation, improved school attendance, improved family health and nutrition and greater awareness of family planning techniques.

The role of the Department of Non-Formal Education (NFE) is broad, including policy planning, involvement in programme design, management and administration of the literacy programmes and some monitoring activity. A large proportion of NFE staff time both at the central level and in the provinces is reportedly devoted to programme management and administration. The time devoted to quality control and impact monitoring of both MEYS and NGO managed programmes appears to be limited.

The financing of literacy programmes is currently very heavily reliant on NGO/donor support. Over the 1994–1999 period, it is estimated that Government spending on literacy and other non-formal programmes amounted to about Riels 9.5 billion, or US$2.3 million. Over the same period, external assistance amounted to an indicative figure of US$5 million.

The main priority is to expand adult literacy classes, especially for disadvantaged groups and in under-served areas. A fundamental strategic priority is to reassess the role of the Ministry of Education in non-formal/literacy education. There is a strong argument for shifting the primary responsibilities of the NFE Department away from programme management and delivery towards policy development, strategic planning and monitoring. Key measures could include: (a) building up an NFE information system that maps poverty indicators, education access indicators and literacy rates as a basis for program targeting and planning; (b) strengthening the capabilities of headquarters and provincial NFE staff in quality assurance and progress and impact monitoring; and (c) strengthening capacity in literacy curriculum and programme screening, including the potential cost implications.

An associated strategic consideration is to review the NGO/community and public partnership in NFE. There is a good case for the main provider role shifting towards the NGO/community group, with the MEYS adopting a monitoring role. One institutional option could be the setting up of a local NGO Consortium for Non-Formal Education, with responsibility for the day-to-day planning and management of literacy programmes.

The medium-term financing of literacy programmes is a pressing issue. Direct user charges do not appear feasible since a large proportion of the target groups are from the poorest communities. Strategic options include: (a) recurrent budget support for program delivery from donors/NGOs; (b) increased recurrent funding from the Government; and (c) incorporation of literacy programme costs into existing or new micro-credit loan programmes to the rural poor.

In so far as Education for All access and quality targets are increasingly met, the demand for non-formal education should decline. Consequently the case for government financing of literacy programmes becomes less strong. In the medium-term, an associated NFE strategic priority should be to expand Grade IV and Grade VII re-entry programmes for school dropouts to enable them to rejoin mainstream education provision.